Defenders' Experts
International Efforts to Control Invasive Species
One of the most important facets to the problem of alien invasive species is their international nature. Political boundaries are remarkably porous to the intentional and unintentional movement of species from various ecosystems in other parts of the world (see examples in "Enemies at the Gate")
While the advent of new species dates back to the introduction of rats and pigs to foreign lands by tall ships sailing the seas, in recent decades the movement of alien invasive species has been exacerbated by a number of processes central to globalization. Increased trade and movement of peoples across borders serve as a principal means for alien species to "hitch a ride," whether it be the zebra mussel in a ship’s ballast water, foot and mouth disease on a hiker’s boot or the Asian long-horned beetle in wooden packing material.
And it is not just the U.S. that is affected. In today’s world, no country is an island, and almost all countries suffer similar problems from the effects of unwanted alien species. The multitude of pathways for introduction necessitates international and regional cooperation among countries to stop the introduction and reverse the impacts of alien invasive species.
Fortunately, as awareness grows in the public and government agencies, action is increasingly being promoted to prevent the introduction of new alien invasive species and to mitigate the impacts of those already established. Such action needs to take place in a number of different areas of law and policy, including the environment, trade, transport, agriculture and public health.
Environment – A number of international environmental treaties address the prevention, management and control of alien invasive species. The most notable is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) which adopted a set of guiding principles on invasives in April 2002. The principles take a precautionary approach to the prevention, eradication and control of alien invasive species. Additionally, the CBD’s Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety establishes a number of rules relevant for managing the introduction of genetically modified organisms, which could potentially prove invasive. The CBD is also mandated to identify existing gaps in the international legal framework where alien invasive species are not regulated, and it encourages countries to develop national strategies and mechanisms for regional cooperation to combat alien invasive species.
Other environmental agreements relevant to invasive alien species include: the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance; the Convention on Migratory Species; the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change; the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea; and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine Resources.
Trade – It is generally recognized that international trade is vital to economic growth in this day and age, however, trade is also the primary means for the introduction of alien invasive species. Unwanted weeds and critters can be transported with agricultural produce, raw materials such as timber, ornamental plants and exotic pets, and packing materials such as wooden crates or cargo containers. To minimize and control such introductions the World Trade Organization, the International Plant Protection Convention, the Office International des Epizooties and other regional trade agreements generally allow countries to establish sanitary regulations to ensure plant and animal safety as well human health.
However, critics note the difficulties in targeting broad pathways through which a number of alien invasive species might arrive, given the trade regime’s orientation towards facilitating trade and regulating one species at a time. Government action is allowed only after there is proof of threat (and thereby most likely damage) lest more preventative measures be construed as barriers to free trade. Thus, it is difficult for countries to take precautionary action to prevent future species introductions. These issues are further complicated in many developing countries which lack the adequate finances, institutional structures and technical capacity to identify and stop incoming alien invasive species.
Transport – While physical goods and people can serve as a pathway for introductions, the boats, planes and other machines that transport them also serve as a convenient means for moving alien hitchhikers. Shipping moves over 80% of the world’s commodities and is thereby a significant means for the movement of alien species, whether in cargo, ballast water or attached to the ship’s hulls. For example, to stabilize their loads, large ships often take on ballast water in one port and then discharge it in another port when loading cargo. Ballast water served as the means for introducing the zebra mussel into the Great Lakes and the Atlantic comb jelly into the Azov and Black Seas. The International Maritime Organization recently adopted an international treaty establishing a framework of minimum requirements for the treatment and discharge of ballast water. The International Civil Aviation Organization has also started considering its role in preventing the spread of alien invasive species.
Agriculture – The agricultural sector has the most extensive experience with managing alien invasive species, which have generally appeared in the form of plant pests or animal diseases. Many of these invasive insects, weeds and pathogens were unintentionally introduced, although there are examples where one species, introduced to control other harmful species, became invasive (e.g., the giant African snail, Cactoblastis cactorum). Alien invasive species can have significant direct impacts on agriculture by damaging crops, reducing the value of rangelands and introducing livestock diseases, as well as indirect impacts through depleting water resources and increasing land management costs. Additionally, the prevalence of agricultural pests (e.g., citrus canker, fruit flies) and/or livestock diseases (e.g., mad cow disease, avian influenza) may cause other countries to close their markets to such goods to prevent the spread of that species to their own domestic industries.
Given the significance of agricultural production to the economic health of most countries, there are a range of legal instruments and institutions at the international level designed to facilitate trade and protect agricultural health. These include the WTO’s Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards, the International Plant Protection Convention, the Office International des Epizooties, and the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization.
Public Health – Recently, human health scares have become a major news story, whether it be SARS and avian influenza in southeast Asia, monkeypox in the U.S. Midwest or beef with mad cow disease from Canada or in Europe. Many of these diseases and pathogens originate from wild animals and have been transmitted to domesticated livestock as well as humans. Rapid global transport, concentrated agricultural production and shrinking borders between human settlements and the habitat of wild animals are all contributing to and compounding the effects of these public health crises. While these events have garnered increased cooperation and action among national and international agencies, such as the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and the World Health Organization, less attention has focused on the plight of wild animals affected by such diseases or alternatively serving as reservoirs for the viruses.
Many gaps remain in the coverage of alien invasive species by international instruments, whether it be interstate trucking or the movement of tourists and those on business. Effective action requires not just new developments in international law, but also cooperation and leadership from the private sector and a broader awareness among the general public.
Publications
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